PEAKING AND WRITING SKILLS GUIDELINES

SPEAKING AND WRITING SKILLS

      SPEAKING SKILLS

 

4.1.1  Qualities of an effective Communicator

Even in today’s electronic age, effective interpersonal communication skills are a key factor in your professional and personal success. Unfortunately, communication doesn’t come naturally for everyone. The good news is that you can learn good communication skills by learning from the best communicators. Consider these 10 characteristics of effective communicators that will help you improve your own communication skills.

·         A Clear, Concise Message

No one likes a rambler, so have your primary purpose in mind when you begin your communication. Simplify your thoughts, so you can present your point in a precise manner. Once you have made your first important point, move on to the next.

·         Understanding of the Recipient

Effective communicators know who they are talking to, and they understand that the style of communication will vary based on the recipient. For example, you probably talk to your co-workers very differently than you talk to your boss.

·         Empathy for the Recipient

Empathy involves putting yourself in the other person’s shoes. Effective communicators always see the situation from the perspective of the other person, including the emotions that might be involved with the message.

·         Effective Listening

Communication isn’t all about talking to someone. Effective listening means really hearing what the other person is saying as well. Paraphrasing the message and repeating it back to the individual will let you know that you understood their point accurately. It also shows that you care enough about their message to get it right the first time.

·         Asking for Clarification, when Necessary

Effective communicators do not afraid of asking for clarification if they don’t understand the message they are receiving. When you ask for clearer understanding, it shows that you really care what the person is talking about and ensures the conversation to proceed appropriately. Clarification can come from paraphrasing what you heard the other person say or simply asking him to relay his message in a different way that is easier for you to understand.

·         Adherence to the Facts

Effective communicators are much more interested in passing of facts than assumptions or gossip. Avoid the rumor mill at all costs, and unless you can verify your information through the original source, do not pass it on to others. If you are conveying a message from another person, it is also important to get that person’s permission to do so before passing the information onto others.

·         Awareness of Body Language

Body language makes up a large percentage of our messages, so effective communicators learn how to tune into the nonverbal message they are sending. Make eye contact with the person you are talking to as much as possible, particularly when that person is speaking to you. Avoid potentially offensive body language like fidgeting, biting your lip or rolling your eyes that might convey boredom, cynicism or lack of honesty.

·         Provision of Proper Feedback

When you offer feedback to another person, make sure it is constructive. Feedback is important to maintain a positive conversation and ensure you are both on the same page. Feedback might involve requests for clarifications, questions to expand a particular message, or constructive criticism about another’s performance. Pepper potential criticism with plenty of positive feedback so the recipient is more likely to hear your message and take it to heart.

·         Inclusion of Praise, when Appropriate

Effective communicators know how and when to offer praise. Positive feedback is always welcome, as long as the recipient knows it is authentic. When you praise another person, be specific in your compliment by linking it directly to a specific activity or attribute. Praise someone publically whenever you can, and make sure the praise coming out of your mouth is genuine. When you must convey negative information or criticism try starting out with praise and ending with a positive statement. This “hamburger” approach usually helps others take criticism in stride.

·         A Positive Attitude

No one likes to listen to a complainer, so effective communicators work hard to keep their messages positive. Instead of using phrases like, “I can’t” or “We won’t” in your conversations, focus on what you can do for others. Even if you cannot grant a request the way someone hopes, keeping your message positive will allow the other person to accept your “no” with grace.

Effective communicators are typically the successful people in life that others admire. If you would like to join this elite group, practice these tips to improve your own communication skills. The improvement in your professional and personal relationships will make the work on your communication worth the effort.

 

 

4.1.2   Speaking in public and Developing Skills for Oral Presentation

Public speaking refers to a delivery of a message in the spoken form, usually to a special group of people for a special purpose (Mohamed,2002). In general terms, public speaking is a form of communication in which one person talks face to face to a relatively big number of people.Three major elements in the speaking process are involved;

Ø  speaker/ sender

Ø  Speech/ message

Ø  Listeners/ receivers of a message

 

  Public speech is normally delivered aiming at any of the following purposes;

• Informing an audience:  Aims at imparting knowledge to the audience such as teaching whose success depends on whether the audience has learnt what you intended to teach. For example, a teacher telling students on the importance of Communication Skills course or  the Vice Chancellor telling first year students about UDOM etc.

 

• Persuading an audience; Aims at convincing people to change in someways especially on attitudes, point of views, belief or way of doing things etc.It can also convince people to do what they did not know before. E.g the use of newly discovered medicine.

 

• Entertaining an audience: aims at making pleasure to the audience e.g. comedy

 

• Demonstrating: Aims at teaching through actions.Such a speech will be successful if by the end of the speech the audience can do what you showed them to do.Example, A teacher demonstrating to students how to make power point slides.

 

Delivering Effective Public Speech

 

For effective public speech delivery, four major considerations need be taken into account:

-          Deciding on the topic and purpose : for better resultsselect a topic and narrow your purpose for a speech, read intensively about and around the topic, collect and evaluate evidence you will use in the speech, order the information obtained reflecting the available time for presentation, outline activities to be done while presenting and lastly

thoroughly edit your material by removing all communication barriers.

 

§  Analysing the audience : Analyze your audience and adapt your message. Focusing on:

 education level, age range, Language ability, socio-cultural background attitudes, professional profiles, sex- do females/males need special attention, appearance- do you appear similarly to them and any other variable thought important.

what do all these help? They lead a presenter to be aware of what the audience is likely to know, what might interest the audience, appropriate method of presentation appropriate level of materials to be presented and reasonable duration for your presentation

 

 

·         Appropriate application of delivery procedures: apply asystematic delivery pattern- Introduction, body and conclusion then consider the following aspects.

Speaker’s liveliness- not dull, adapt to feedback during the speech, composure and control-move eyes around the audience, not be nervous, dressing style- adhere to the occasion dressing code, talk from notes not reading everything, be generally polite and behave in a manner to make you win the audience’s credits. Likewise offer effective responses to questions- do not modify questions, provide complete answers, do not try to answer questions you have not understood instead ask from the audience and lastly appropriately apply and control your body language.Speak in a reasonable speed allowing your audience to follow, adapt your volume level to the size of the audience and venue.Abide to the standard variety- consult dictionaries, watch TV programmes like the CNN for accuracy. Be honest by providing researched knowledge, be flexible by accept different ideas and as you finish your presentation you better thank the audience for attendance and active participation.

 

 

• Effective use of visual media: A visual aid refers to anything that communicates its message through the eye rather than the ear. These are objects/drawings used to demonstrate processes/systems in a visible manner during teaching/presenting. For example, maps, figures, flow charts, drawings, tables, computer power point, actual objects etc. consider the following:Choose appropriate visuals for your audience basing on age, background, knowledge, attitude and occasion, be sure of your ability to operate the visual aid you have chosen.In case you use drawings, they need to be BIG, BOLD and BRIGHT, simple and appropriate to the topic and audience and check that all electric equipment you use is properly connected.Timing-Display each visual only as you talk about it, focus on your audience not your visual, familiarize your visual before the speech, avoid long pauses as you demonstrate the steps in a process to maintain focus.

And finally rehearse your speech to check relevance on visual aid.

 

 

Roles of Visual aids: create interest and attraction, make complex ideas clear and simple, make abstract ideas concrete, make the audience’s attention withheld by the speaker’s message, help audience to organize ideas, save time by compressing presentations, and facilitate memory retention to the audience

 

 

Stage fright: is a state of developing an anxiety which is expressed by shivering, sweating, and experiencing rapid heartbeats facing many inexperienced public speakers.

Remove/ control stage fright by;

·         Recognizing that you are beneficial rather than harmful

·         Making a thorough Preparation to your speech

·         Arriving early

·         Using the podium if available

·         Moving around the venue as you speak

·         Familiarizing with the venue/microphone

·         Talking to people- audience to be...get familiar

·         Feeling relaxed

·         Reducing anxiety

·         Knowing that you can do your best as a speaker

·         Practicing/rehearsing your presentation before the actual presentation

 

 

4.1.3   How to communicate with officials

Officials in the current context mean people serving people in the government at various positions. At some time you may need to appeal to a governmental official to act on a problem. Whether help is given will depend upon how persuasive you are. Critical to your success will be how well you listen to the explanations you receive. Keep the following tips in mind so as to effectively help you call, write, and set up meetings with public officials. The message can be rendered in person, on the phone, via letters, faxes, or emails, as an individual or in a group.

 

Necessary conditions

·         Do your homework by being sure that you understand the issue of concern and that all your facts and figures are accurate.

·         Have a clear, focused purpose for your action. Address one issue at a time. The more 

·         Prepared you are, the more persuasive you can be. Be specific about what you want to achieve. What do you want your senator, representative, or other decision-maker to do for you?

·         Learn which official can help you. Do not waste time appealing to people who are powerless.

·         If you will be speaking to a specific official, try to learn more about his or her personality, power and biases.

·         Make an appointment and arrive on time in case it is via a face to face talk.

·         Choose the method that is most comfortable for you. There are many ways to make your

Opinions known. The important thing is to take action.

·         Show the official how his or her position is specifically affected by or concerned about the issue.

·         Present your case in a concise, well-organised manner. End with a summary and request for action.

·         Speak effectively and sincerely, but avoid emotional displays. Be respectful, but not intimidated.

·         Be courteous and reliable. Don't promise what you cannot deliver in terms of help or

information. Leave your contact information. Always follow up on requests for

additionalmaterials or further clarification. If you have questions or want additional

information, ask to speak with the staff person who works on the issue about which you

are concerned (for example: “May I speak with the staff person who works on budget

issues?”). Feel free to ask if you can leave a message on voicemail if the staff is

unavailable, and be sure to include your name and phone number.

·         When you have finished your presentation, ask for a specific date or time when you can learn whether action has been taken.

·         A day or two prior to your meeting, confirm the appointment by calling the scheduler or staff person with whom you will be visiting. In addition, if you have a written confirmation, bring a copy to the meeting.

·         On the day of your meeting, be prompt. If the legislator or official is late, be patient and flexible.

·         Follow up your appeal by speaking to or phoning the official to see what action has been taken. And always send a thank-you note after a meeting.

 

TIPS ON WRITING TO PUBLIC OFFICIALS

Like phone calls, congressional offices keep track of emails from constituents on various issues and report the numbers to the representatives and senators on a regular basis. Sending an email to your member of Congress is another important way to advocate for the issues about which you care.

 

·         Email is an easy and efficient way to send a message to your legislators. Be sure to sign up. Use it to send a pre-written letter to decision-makers on selected topics of concern to the concerned official. (You may edit the pre-written letter.

·         If you are writing a letter of your own, it is best to send it by email or fax. You may need to call the parliamentary office or look on their website to find the correct email address or fax number. Letters sent to parliament go through a rigorous and lengthy security screening process, slowing delivery by several days or more.

·         Clearly state your purpose at the beginning of your letter (include the bill name/number and what you would like the parliament to do).

·         When possible, include personal examples of why you support/oppose the particular bill.

·         Address only one issue per letter and keep your message short and to the point.

·         Unless you are an official spokesperson, your letters should be sent by you as an individual and not in the name of the organization.

 

Sending Emails

When addressing an email to a public official, follow the same suggestions as for a printed letter. For the subject line of your e-mail, identify your message by topic or bill number.

The body of your message should use this format:

Your Name

Address

City,

Dear (Title) (Last Name),

Insert your message here…

Addressing Correspondence to an MP

The Honorable (Full Name)

United of Tanzania Parliament

 

TIPS FOR MAKING A PERSONAL VISIT TO A LEGISLATOR

Meeting with a member of Parliament or the staff is an effective way to convey a message about a specific issue or legislative matter and to build a relationship.

·         Call the MP’s office to make an appointment. Ask to speak to the scheduler.

·         Often you will be asked to fax or email a written request. Include the number of people joining you and what issues you want to discuss.

·          A day or two prior to your meeting, confirm the appointment by calling the scheduler or staff person with whom you will be visiting. In addition, if you have a written confirmation, bring a copy to the meeting.

·         On the day of your meeting, be prompt. If the legislator or official is late, be patient and flexible.

·         Don’t be disappointed if your meeting is with a staff person, or if your meeting begins with the public official and ends with staff. There is great value in educating and building a relationship with the key staff people who cover your issues — they play a vital role in the legislative decision-making process.

·         Bring some succinct written materials outlining your position and leave them with the person you are visiting.

 

An effective visit should include the following components:

·         A clear statement of who you are and why you are there

·         An explanation of the issue(s) and what you want the decision-maker to do about it

·         One or more personal stories illustrating why these issues are so important to you and your community (This is a great opportunity to discuss your views as a person of faith!)

·         A direct ask: “Will you support/oppose this proposal?” (Give the person you’re meeting with time to respond)

·          A thank you :Follow up on the meeting with a thank-you letter outlining what was covered and reiterate your main message on the issue.

 

 

4.2.0    WRITING SKILLS

 

4.2.1  Introduction

 

Writing needs planning for effective product. To attain such objective the following ten hints on writing as proposed by Forest (1998) should be put into consideration.

 

i.             Before writing anything, make a short plan of your entire composition, using any help given in the question.

ii.           Use only words and constructions with which you are familiar.

iii.         Avoid flowery and pompous language. The best writers of English express themselves in simple and clear language.

iv.          Avoid abbreviations. The place for these is in notes.

v.            Make your writing interesting by illustrating what you say with examples where relevant.

vi.          Do not begin writing a sentence until you know how it will continue and end.

vii.         Begin a paragraph for each new topic.

viii.       Pay close attention to mechanical skills- grammar, spelling and punctuation.

ix.          Do not switch tenses unless the sense requires you to.

x.            Check you work thoroughly at least twice. This will necessitate allowing a few minutes at the end of the time allotted.

 

 

4.2.3 Letter Writing

This part has been to a large extent adopted from Eliakimu, (2012(Ed.)

Despite the development of simplified means of communication other than letters, communication through letters has remained to be a very useful and important means of communication in the society particularly in organisations. Among the letters written include; job application letters, complaint letters, resignation letters, letters to ask for permission, covering letters for job recommendation, inquiry/order letters, confirmation letters etc. Since not many people understand the importance of letters before they start job applications and that the majority of people focus on other forms of communication, letter writing skills remain largely unknown to a relatively big number of people. As a result, many people write poor letters and some do copy their friends’ letters. It should be known that the letter you write for job application or for any official purpose is a good tool to judge your intellectual abilities even before seeing you or interviewing you. The way you structure, choose words to use in your letter and grammaticality of your sentences portrays your reality before your addressee. It is, therefore, suggested that people should learn to write official/business letters because letter writing remains central in the day to day life.

 

Aspects to Consider in Official Letter Writing

 

v  Official letters should be in a good structure with at least two addresses.

v  Official letters should be short. Only the necessary information should be included in a letter (i.e. the purpose of writing the letter) since you will attach your CV with the letter which offers much more description about you. A letter should be limited to one page.

v  Formality: Your letter should be formal and polite, do not use colloquial or shortened words in your letter, even when the addressee is your close friend. You should be polite even when you are writing a letter for complaint. Formality and politeness is shown through the choice of words in your letter.

 

Parts / Sections of official letters

1. Sender’s address: This is written on top of the right hand corner of the paper. It should only be the writer’s address and not his/her names in this part.
2. Date: It is important to show the date of writing the letter. Date helps for references when needed in future. It also helps in understanding if the letter is received on time, or there were some delays somewhere. It should be immediately after the writer’s address.
3. Reference number: reference numbers help in keeping and retrieving the file when needed. Reference numbers may be arranged department wise, school wise depending on the organisational structure. Taking example of the University of Dodoma where there are around 1000 staff workers. The central administration may have categorized its staff in terms of academic staff and administrative staff, and each staff has his/her personal file and copy of letters written to these staff need to be filed in their personal files. Writing a letter to any academic staff, the administration may use a reference number such as UDOM/AC/PF538/6. UDOM stands for the University of Dodoma; AC stands for academic staff; PF538 stands for personal file number 538; and 6 stands for the number of the letters written to the particular staff until that particular time. If you are replying to a letter which had a reference number, you should repeat this on your letter above the addressee’s address (It should be preceded by the words “Your ref:). Leave a space between the reference number and the addressee’s address.
4. The name and address of the addressee, the person you are writing the letter to. This is written below the date, on the left hand corner of the paper. You should start writing the address with the title of the addressee. For example, “The general manager,” “The head master,” “The DVC ARC,” etc.
5. Salutation: This is written below the addressee’s address. Leave a single space after the addressee’s address. Salutation depends on whether you know the person you are addressing the letter, i.e. if the addressee is a man or a woman. If you know the sex of the person, just write Dear sir! (For a man), Dear madam! (For a woman). Again, salutation depends on the status of the person you are writing the letter. For example, if the addressee is your subordinate, salutation can include his/her name, e.g. Dear Eliakimu. /Mr. Eliakimu, /Dear Flora,/Mrs. Flora, / etc.
6. Title of the letter: This is written below the salutation. It is the synopsis of your letter. Normally, the addressee will first look at the title of your letter before looking at anything else. Since the title of the letter introduces the aim of your letter, it should be formatted to catch your readers’ attention. Therefore, the title of the letter should either be bolded or underlined. You should only underline it when your letter is hand written. Don’t do both bolding and underlining at the same time. Some people may decide to introduce the title with a preposition re others may just write the heading/title, all are right.

7.    Body of the letter

The body of your letter should be structured in four short paragraphs with the following contents:

Paragraph one: State why you are writing the letter and where you saw or heard the job advertisement. For example you may write:

                      Iwould like to apply for a post of …as it was advertised on the daily newspaper on 21^st August 2012. Or With reference to you advertisement on the daily newspaper of 21^st August 2012, I am writing to apply for a post of… at your organization. Or I would like to apply for a position as a teaching partner at your organization, if there is any position to offer me. I have learned about your organization through its outstanding performance in serving the community at rural areas in Arusha against HIV/AIDS related problems.

 

Paragraph two: Briefly explain about your qualification and experiences, especially that which is related to the job you are currently applying. You may give the following arguments for example: I have two years experience of working as …During this time I gained enough experience in designing and preparing new television programs. Or working as a customer care officer for two years, I gained enough experience in understanding and working on customers’ needs, especially with new customers in an organization.

 

Paragraph three:  Show that you believe that you are suitable for the job that you are applying. Explain why the company should employ you. Or why are you seeking to change the job you are currently employed. For example you may provide the following arguments: Given the experiences I have in this job, I have a feeling that I can work to meet the needs of the organization. Or I believe that I will be able to bring my useful experiences to the success of your company. Or if you offer me the opportunity to work at your company, I will use my talents, experiences, and creativities to work hard for the success of your organization.

 

Paragraph four:  Tell the reader that you are ready to be interviewed when needed. If the advertisement for the job did not require your CV, include your phone numbers in this paragraph so that they can contact you for an interview. For example, you may provide the following arguments:

I am ready for an interview when needed. I can be contacted at 0761 000 001. Or as requested in the advertisement, I attach a copy of my CV with this letter. I am ready to appear for an interview if contacted three days before the interview date.

 

8. Ending: To end the letter you would write phrases such as “yours sincerely” or “yours faithfully,” etc.
9. Signature: You should sign your letter before sending it. This should come after ending your letter and your full name should appear just below the signature.

Example of a Job Application Letter

P.O.BOX 11031,

DODOMA,

TANZANIA.

 

28^th November, 2014.

THE VICE CHANCELLOR,

THE UNIVERSITY OF PONGWE,

P.O. BOX 411,

NAIROBI, KENYA.

 

Dear Sir,

                A REQUEST FOR A POST OF ASSISTANT LECTURER IN LINGUISTICS

I am writing to apply for the post of assistant lecturer in linguistics which was advertised on the daily newspaper dated 24^th October 2014.

 

I hold master’s degree in linguistics and I have a two years working experience as an English teacher in secondary school. I have also worked as a part-time instructor in English at the University of Moshi in Kilimanjaro Region and a part-time instructor in communication skills at the institute of Judicial Education in Singida Region.

 

Having enough experience in teaching and being a very motivated teacher, I have a feeling that I will work to meet the objectives of establishing the course at your institution if you offer me a chance to work as a part-time lecturer in Linguistics.

 

I have attached a copy of my curriculum vitae together with the copies of my certificates with this letter for reference. I am ready to appear for an interview when needed.

 

I thank you in advance for your consideration.

 

Yours faithfully,

…NKuzariwa..

Najuta Kuzaliwa

 

 

Letters Addressed to More than One Person

Some requests require authorities from heads of different sections. For example, an employee at a University requesting a permission to travel out of the region of employment has to request permission to travel from the college Principal. For the college Principal to grant the permission, he/she has to know if the employee has everything related to his/her work in a good order before his travel and his absence may not affect the college’s functions. The Principal will know these through the head of the department and dean of the school in which the employee is working, or any other authorities depending on the University.

 

In such circumstances, a letter has to be addressed to more than one person. The addresses for all the people who should authorize the request are written on the left hand side of the paper. All the subordinates in the hierarchy are introduced by an abbreviation u. f. s which stands for ‘under further signature.’ The letter should have all the addresses for the people to authorize it in the left hand side arranged according to the rank of the people addressed, i.e. the address of the person with high rank in the organization should appear at the top and followed by those with lower ranks. This is so because the letter will pass to the officers with lower ranks before it reaches the top authorities. For example, a letter will pass to the head of department before it reaches to the dean of school.  See the example in the next pages:

 

 

 

 

 

Examples of Letters Addressed to More than One Person

 

Box 300,

                                                                             Dodoma-Tanzania.

 

                                                                   25^th June, 2012.

The Director of Human Resource Management,

Patapata Secondary School,

Box 201,

Dodoma.

 

u. f. s. The Discipline Master,

            School of Fine Arts and Arts Subjects.

 

u. f. s. The Head,

            Department of Arts Subjects,

            P. o. box 626,

            Dodoma-Tanzania.

 

Dear Madam!

 

RE:A REQUEST FOR A STUDY LEAVE

I would like to call your attention on the heading above. I am Eliakimu Sane, who is an employee at your school, working at the Department of Arts Subjects.

 

I am writing to inform you that I intend to start my bachelor degree studies (B. A. Education) in the next academic `year 2013/2014 at the University of Dodoma and, therefore, I am requesting a study leave of three years, that is from 21^st January, 2013 to pursue my intended studies.

 

I attach with this letter a copy of my admission letter from the University of Dodoma for further reference.

 

I hope that you will consider my request.

 

Yours sincerely,

 

……………..

 Eliakimu Sane

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Example of a Letter to Ask for Promotion at Job

27^th December, 2010.

THE DEPUTY VICE CHANCELLOR (ARC),

THE UNIVERSITY OF ZIZO,

BOX 305,

MWANZA-TANZANIA.

 

U. F. S. THE PRINCIPAL,

           COLLEGE OF ARTS STUDIES.

 

U. F. S. THE DEAN,

           SCHOOL HUMANITIES.

 

U. F. S. HEAD OF DEPARTMENT,

           DEPARTMENT OF FINE ARTS AND PERFORMANCE.

 

          Dear Sir!

 

                       RE: REQUEST FOR PROMOTION

I am writing this letter to request your attention on my career. First of all, I would like to take this opportunity to express my thanks and appreciation for accommodating me as a member of ZIZO academic staff where I have been working as a tutor in the department of mathematics. I have been working with the team while pursuing my master’s degree studies (Master of Science in Mathematics) and I have successfully completed my studies with very good passes.

 

Having completed and passed my master’s degree studies, I am requesting you to move me to upward position from a tutor to an assistant lecturer in Mathematics.

 

I thank you in advance for your time and consideration.

 

Yours sincerely,

 

………………….

John Kajasho

 

NB: In some organizations you may not be required to write a letter to ask for promotion because they may be automatic. The management may know that you are on studies and when you graduated or expected to graduate. Remember that you might have asked for a study leave before you went for the studies, therefore your progress report will help.

 

In replying the letters such as those above, the persons addressed will use the same channels to inform those in authority and the persons with requests that the request(s) are agreed or not. Using one the letters above, for example, the human resource manager will have the addresses of those with higher ranks (bellow him/her) starting at the bottom and lastly the name of the addressor. If there are other people with higher ranks and authorities or even with lower ranks and authorities but need to be informed about the matter, these will be carbon copied the letter, just to let them know about the fact and if there is anything they need to do about the decision. In addition, the reply will have a reference number since it will be kept in the personal file of the person with the request. See the following example:

 

                                                                                                      Patapata Secondary School,

                                                                                                      Box 201,

                                                                                                      Dodoma.

 

                                                                                                      18^th December, 2012.

Ref: PT/AC/PF-23/5

 

Eliakimu Sane

Patapata Secondary School

 

u. f. s. The Head,

           Department of Arts Subjects.

 

u. f. s. The Discipline Master,

School of Fine Arts and Arts Subjects,

            P. o. box 626,

            Dodoma-Tanzania.

 

RE: A GRANT OF STUDY LEAVE

 

Reference is made to your letter of 25^th June, 2012. I am glad to inform you that your request for study leave is accepted as from 21^st January, 2013 as you requested. However, you will be required to submit your progress report to the headmaster’s office at the end of every semester for the whole period of your study.

 

Patapata secondary school would like to congratulate you for having been selected to pursue your degree in education at the University of Dodoma and wish you good luck in your studies!

 

Parapanda M. N.

 

…………….

Human Resource Manager

 

c. c. Head master

c. c. The School Manager

c. c. Bursar

 

 

 

 

JOB RECOMMENDATION/COVERING LETTERS

These are letters written to recommend someone to a particular organization in which he/she is applying for a job. They are also written to recommend someone to pursue further studies. They are usually written by someone who supervised you in a job, taught or supervised you in education. You must be honest when recommending someone for a particular job because you may cause serious problems by recommending someone for a particular job when you know that she/he doesn’t possess the required qualities. Just think how you will cause serious problems by recommending someone for a medical doctor position while the person is not qualified for the position.

 

Important Things to Consider when Writing a Recommendation/Covering Letters

·         Your address and the contact information: You should have your address and contact information, i.e. your address (usually the organization/institution address, phone numbers and e-mail address) written at the top right corner of the paper.

 

·         Date: The date of writing that recommendation letter should appear just below your address and contact information. Leave a space between the address and the date.

·         Addressee’s address: If you know where the letter is going, use the full address of the addressee. Usually, we don’t know the addressees’ to whom for the recommendation letters are directed to. The person you are recommending may use the letter in many places when applying for job or positions, we do not write addresses; instead, we write a sentence ‘To whom it may concern:’ on the right hand side of the paper below the date.

 

·         Title of the letter: This appears below the words ‘To Whom It May Concern:’ It should include the name of the person and the organization. See the following examples, Eliakimu’s service with Afrocquick; or Eliakimu’s schooling at UDOM; or Re: Eliakimu at UDOM; or RE: ELIAKIMU

·         The body of the letter: The body of the letter should have the following structure and contents:

 

Paragraph one: Introduce that the person is known to you and the organization and for how long.

Paragraph two: In this paragraph, explain the position or if the applicant is a student, the courses taken by the applicant.

Paragraph three: Explain the strength or weaknesses of the person you are writing the covering letter.

 

In ending the letter, include your full name, signature and you title/position you hold at the institution. 

 

EXAMPLE OF A COVERING LETTER FOR JOB RECOMMENDATION

Box 209

Dodoma

Tanzania

0762 355 321

John Kajasho

Tanzania chief coordinator

kijoti@gmail.com

 

                                                                                                       17^th December, 2012

To whom it may concern:

 

RE: ELIAKIMU SANE’S SERVICE WITH AFROQUACK

In regard with the heading above, Eliakimu Sane is an individual who is well known to Afroquick Society Organization with a record of service spanning three years. He has had roles of teaching at the organization at the following dates:

 

English language teacher     May, 2006-January, 2008

African history teacher       February, 2008-January, 2009

 

As a teacher, Eliakimu worked as advanced secondary school students’ teacher. In his teaching, he was responsible for preparing lesson plans and teaching the subjects to Form Five and Six students. As a teacher, Eliakimu lived and worked with other teachers coming from cross-cultural environment.

 

Afroquick Society Organization is a charity based organization found in Arusha rural, providing education to students from poor families.

 

During his time with Afroquick, Eliakimu has been working hard, passionate, and reliable, and his effectiveness is indicated in the times he has been invited to return.

Please feel free to contact us with any question.

……………………..

Posh Kijoti

The chief coordinator- Southern Highland zone.

 

 

4.2.4 Report Writing

 

A report is an informative written document that is written after research, investigation or critical study or observation. Usually a report contains details that can’t be found in normal letters and memos.

 

Importance of Reports

•  Help in decision making
• Efficient way of disseminating complex info. Systematically to a large number of people in business
•  Are a permanent record
• Present suggestions on ways in which a situation may be improved
•  Key for future plans
• Identify the weaknesses of the company
•  Help in the Assessment of the performance appraisals
• Help in making conclusions and interpreting the information
• For company literature review( source of reference)

·         Evaluate and assess the progress of the company

 

Qualities of an effective report

• A report will achieve its objectives if it provides the necessary and sufficient balance of the following characteristics relating to the specific audience and situation.
• Accuracy of facts
• Precision- being clear with the purpose of a report.
• Relevance- each fact must be significant to a report.
• Clarity- everything should be made clear.
• Design(Organisation, logic progression and layout)
• Emphasis (of the most important points).
• Reader oriented – put the report reader in mind as you write (layman or expert) otherwise it will not be comprehended.
• Objectivity of recommendations- they should be impartial/ bias free. They should be derived from logical conclusion to investigation and analysis.
• Simple and unambiguous language- use common core and formal language.
• Grammatical accuracy – language rules, punctuation marks should be appropriately get applied.

 

Issues to consider before writing any report

• Define the problem and purpose (TOR)
• Consider who will receive the report
• Determine ideas to include
• Collect needed materials
• Sort, analyze and interpret data
• Organize data and prepare final outline (know what will form which chapter).

 

 

Types of Reports

Based on Tambwe (2011), reports are classified under various criteria as follows:

• Level of formality i.e. formal and informal.
• Purpose i.e. informative and analytical or investigative reports.
• Destination i.e. management report, public report.
• Time interval of presenting i.e. periodic or routine reports like the daily, weekly, monthly, annual reports,
• Level of complexity i.e. simple vs complex report.

·         Event oriented- special reports.

 

 

 

·         Length i.e.  short and long. The short ones 1-2 pages) includes part of the elements required in formal reports while long ones must have all required elements in a formal report.

 

Based on Shumbusho and Mwaijande(2002)

a)    Routine/Periodic reports

These are reports that are made on a regular, prescribed interval in the usual routine of day to day activities. Normally only facts  are presented with no recommendations.

• Managers’ reports on the work of their departments
• Equipment maintenance reports 
• Progress reports, Accident reports etc.

 

 

They aim at presenting a correct and coherent picture of the working of the firm concerned during the period concerned.

 

b)   Special reports

These are reports written in response to requests for specific information, for market research, regarding a change of policy, or made after research and investigation. Examples include; Proposal reports, feasibility reports, Investigative reports.

 

c)    Progressreport

These describe and assess the progress made during a particular period. They account on the work already done, work in progress with other relevant facts and details yet to be completed.

They cover a brief introduction to the project; a brief account of the work completed plus any

 special problems encountered and their solutions, important aspects of the work not yet completed and any obstacles that might slow down the work.

 

d)   Analyticalreports

These are reports specially commissioned to study important aspects or events where old files are studied, personal interviews are held, questionnaires are circulated, relevant literature is studied and then facts are compiled, analysed and conclusions are drawn and recommendations follow.

 

 

Parts of a report

Parts of reports do differ from one report to the other depending on the nature of it i.e. length, subject matter presented, level of formality etc, however most complex reports include the following elements:

a) Preliminary sections

• Title
• Terms of reference
• Synopsis
• Table of contents
• List of illustrations (abbrev., symbols)
• Glossary

b) Main body – Introduction, Main content part,(Literature review, methodology, data analysis  

     and presentation of findings)

c)  Conclusions, recommendations and

d)  List of references and Appendices

 

Formal simple reports on the other side contain the following parts;

 

Heading

There should be two headings to a report, the name of the company, and the report topic ………….

 

Terms of reference

This section should state exactly why the report is written. Why are you writing the report? What was requested? Who requested it? When were you asked to do it?

 

Procedure

Give a brief description of the methods used to collect the information. Perhaps interviews were held, visits made, questionnaires issued?  Use numbered points if appropriate. 

 

Findings
This will be the longest section of the report. Go through the procedure point by point and use number and sub headings for this section. Under each heading state what information was gathered at each stage.

 

Conclusion

No new fact must be introduced in this section. You must look at the findings and state 

the logical implication of them. What can you infer or conclude from the findings.

 

Recommendations

Again no new facts must be introduced here. On the basis of information presented in findings and conclusions, make some suggestions for action. Remember that the writer of the report can’t make report decisions- he or she only suggests what action should be taken.

 

Closing section

A report should be signed and there should be a name and title shown at the foot plus the date the report was written.

 

Example of a Simple Formal report;

 

 

 

 

Mbalamwezi Petroleum Company

Report on complaints about poor customer service

 

Terms of reference

To investigate complaint about poor customer service provided by the staff and make recommendations, as requested by Mr.Moon Peter.

 

Procedure

·         An interview was held with Mr. Nwankwo Kanu, the sales manager on 2/11/013

·         Interviews were held with a cross section of customers (60) who we provide to our services

 

Findings

• Interview with Mr. Nwankwo Kanu , (the sales manager)………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………

 

·         Interview with customers

..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

 

Conclusions

1……………………………………………………………………………

2……………………………………………………………………………

 

Recommendations

1……………………………………………………………………………

2……………………………………………………………………………

 

Bibliograph/ references

…………………………………………………………………………………

 

Friday Stephano

Business administration officer

 

 

 

4.2.5 Speech Writing

 

 

Introduction

A speech is a logical oral presentation of ideas and concepts to a group of people in a specified   setting. Speech writing on the other hand is the presentation of originally oral ideas and related concepts in a form of writing. Normally, a speech is meant to convey one’s thoughts or opinions, share information with or spread awareness among a large number of people. A good speech has clarity of thought and expression, accuracy of facts and an unbiased view of issues.

This notice manual focuses on structuring the speech and utilizing proper writing techniques. Each speech should be comprised of three major parts: introduction, body, and conclusion. However, before writing the speech, you are advised to outline the major points. An outline provides a framework that arranges the major points and supporting materials. Rearrange the major ideas in the speech until you believe the layout will have the greatest impact on your listeners.

 

Basic considerations in writing

When writing anything, three major aspects should be mostly taken into account:

·         Knowing your reader - before one begins writing even the first draft, one needs to think about who will receive the message. Who are they? Why will they read the message? What do they already know about my subject matter? What are their attitudes towards my message? Answers to these questions and any other relevant ones will guide the writers to know their readers. Better messages are those appealing to the reader’s needs.

 

·         Know your Purpose – What changes do you aim your message to institute to your readers? Is it just for informing, requesting, confirming, persuading, inquiring, complaining or demonstrating? However, some messages do combine two or more of these purposes. This will guide you towards an appropriate diction and focus.

 

·         Know your subject – for the clarity of a message, you will need to promptly know your subject well. This knowledge may emanate from the job experience you have had been doing or through doing further research of the topic you want to talk about.

 

·         Developing a writing style – this is the modality through which your message will be organized. Is it in a letter, memo or report format?

 

 

 

Writing a Speech

After you have analyzed your audience, selected the topic, collected supporting materials, and written an outline, it is time to write the speech.

 

The Introduction

The introduction usually states the purpose of the speech. A good introduction serves as an attention getter, previews the topic and main ideas, and establishes your credibility as a speaker (O’Hair, Rubenstein, & Stewart, 2007). Some good ways to grab attention include using a quotation, telling a story, posing questions, using humor, using startling facts or statistics, providing an illustration or anecdote, or referencing historical or recent events. A preview statement identifies the main points of the speech, helping the audience focus on the key points of the remainder of the presentation. The audience determines your credibility based on the introduction—they want to know why they should believe

what you have to say. Therefore, establishing yourself as a credible speaker in the introduction is imperative, especially for a persuasive speech, so that the audience will want to be persuaded by you. You should include some experience or knowledge that shows why you are credible on the topic.

 

The Body

The body is the largest part of the speech, where you provide the audience with the major supporting materials. The main points of the speech are contained in this section. Main points should flow from the speech’s goal and thesis statement. It is advisable to limit your content to include between two and five main points, with a maximum of seven main points. Speeches with three main points are common. If you have too many main points, your audience will forget them. Focusing on a few points and providing effective supporting points for each makes your speech more memorable. Supporting points are the supporting materials you have collected to justify your main points. These help to substantiate your thesis.

 

The Conclusion

The conclusion wraps up the presentation by providing a summary of what the audience was supposed to have learned or have been persuaded to do during the presentation.You can signal that the conclusion is approaching byusing key phrases, such as “finally,” “let me close by saying,”“I’d like to stress these three points,” and “in conclusion.”Because the conclusion is the last opportunity to motivateyour listeners, it should end strongly. For a persuasivespeech, a strong ending would be a call to action, where youtell the audience members they should do something withthe information they have learned.Many times, you can use a mirrored conclusion example that ties back to or “mirrors” the information you provide in the introduction. For example, if you use statistics as your attention-getting method in the introduction to a speech about recycling on campus, your speech’s beginningand ending might sound something like this:

 

Introduction: “According to the University of Florida’s Office of Sustainability, the campus used more than 4 million trash bags in 2006 alone, weighing 163 tons without the trash. Altogether, UF generates over 14,000 tons of trash per year.” Mirrored Conclusion: “Each time you are about to throw a

bottle, can, or newspaper in the trash, decide to recycle it instead and help reduce the 14,000 tons of waste we create each year at UF.”

 

Conversational Speech

You should write the speech like you talk. Follow these writing tips to make your speech as conversational as possible:

• Use short sentences of 20 words or less. You usually do not use long sentences in a conversation. Short sentences— even sentence fragments—are fine for a speech.

• Avoid complicated sentence structures. Simple sentences that have a subject, verb, and object are perfect  for public speaking.

• Use contractions. “Do not” and “cannot” are usually too formal for most speeches. “Don’t” and “can’t” are fine. Be careful of contractions ending in “-ve” (e.g., “would’ve,” “could’ve”) because they sound like “would of ” and “could of.”

• Avoid jargon or technical language. Use words that your audience knows.

• Round large numbers. Detailed numbers• Use repetition. The same word or phrase used repeatedly emphasizes a major point.

• Write with visual imagery. Make your listeners “see” what you are saying. Help them visualize  the situation you are describing.

 

Types of Speeches

Speeches can be divided into the following categories: the informative speech, the persuasive speech, and speeches for special occasions.

 

Informative Speech

If the speech’s purpose is to define, explain, describe, or demonstrate, it is an informative speech. The goal of an informative speech is to provide information completely and clearly so that the audience understands the message. Examples of informative speeches include describing the

life cycle stages of an egg to a chicken, explaining how to operate a camera, or demonstrating how to cook a side dish for a meal. The organization of the speech depends on your specific purpose and varies depending on whether you are defining, explaining, describing, or demonstrating. Informative demonstration speeches lend themselves well to the use of visual aids to show the step-by-step processes with real objects.

 

Persuasive Speech

Persuasive speeches are given to reinforce people’s beliefs about a topic, to change their beliefs about a topic, or to move them to act. When speaking persuasively, directly state what is good or bad and why you think so near the beginning of the speech. This is your thesis statement that you want to make early on. Since your purpose is topersuade using logic and reasoning, this communicates to listeners that you want to convince them of your point of view. One way to structure a persuasive speech is to use the

five-part argument:

 

·         The introduction attracts the attention of the audience, sets the tone, and describes what the persuasive speech is about. The introduction usually includes the thesis statement—the specific sentence that explains the main point of the argument.

·         The background provides the context and details needed for a listener to understand the situation being described, as well as the problem or opportunity being addressed.

·         Lines of argument make up the body of the speech. Here is where you include all the claims, reasons, and supporting evidence you have that help you make your points effectively.

·         Refuting objections means disproving, ruling out, and countering any potential objections before the listeners can think of reasons not to be persuaded.

·         The conclusion is where you present your closing arguments. To be effective, the conclusion should restate your thesis statement and summarize the main points of your argument. If you are advocating a particular solution to a problem or a decision to be made, you should close by asking your listeners to adopt your point of view.

 

Speeches for Special Occasions

Speeches for special occasions are prepared for a specific occasion and for a specific purpose dictated by that occasion (O’Hair et al., 2007). Speeches for special occasions can be informative, persuasive, or both, depending on the occasion. Two of the more common types of speeches for special occasions are the speech of introduction and the speech of welcome. The speech of introduction is a brief speech that provides the main speaker’s qualifications. This speech prepares the audience for the main speaker by establishing the speaker’s credibility and helps make the speaker feel welcome. To write the speech of introduction, gather biographical information about the speaker. Try to find out one or two pieces of information about the speaker’s background or credentials that would establish a relationship with the

audience. The speech of introduction is usually one to no more than three minutes in length. The speech of welcome acknowledges and greets a person or group of people. The speech of welcome expressespleasure for the presence of the person or group. The purpose is to make the person or group feel welcome and to provide information about the organization you represent. Find out something about the person or group beforehand that you can include in the speech of welcome. The speech of welcome typically lasts between three and five minutes.

 

Speech format:

• Beginning: A pre-speech note

 Salutation

 Occasion of speech and an announcement of topic:

• Development of topic:

 Reference to newspapers statistics, effects and results, arguments, etc

• Winding up: Summing up of all points

• Conclusion : Conclude with a hope or an appeal or a warning

 End with a ‘Thank You’

N.B;

Points to remember:

• It is very important to hold the attention of the audience. Therefore, keep the speech to the 

point and appealing.

• Start the speech with an interesting bit of information, a question or a quotation.

• Convey your opinions and views in an organised and coherent manner.

• Develop each point properly and then move on to the next one.

• Provide examples, statistics and facts that are properly researched and authentic.

• Interact with the audience by posing questions and including some humour, if it is appropriate.

• End with an emphasis on your point of view and personal inferences so that the audience thinks about what you have expressed.

• Always thank the audience for listening to you before leaving the stage.

 

 

Sample speeches:

1.    You have lately read the account of many cases of violent behaviour by school children. Some instances have been quite injurious and harmful to the victims. You are shocked by these accounts and decide to share your views with your schoolmates. Prepare a speech for the morning assembly on the topic ‘Growing violence in children: Causes and cures’.

 

Honourable principal, respected teachers and my dear friends,

I would like to share my views on the growing violence among children these days, which is proving to be rather detrimental to the children’s progress. Lack of an appropriate environment and good parental care, and pressure of peers are some of the factors that are responsible for giving rise to negative emotions in children. Feelings of neglect and immense pressure cause anger and dissatisfaction in these youngsters. The growing exposure to crime films and thrillers too raises the levels of aggression in them.

 

Moreover, the rush of consumerism has aroused a child’s desire to possess whatever he sees in the advertisements on the television. And in case of non-fulfillment of these desires and wants, there is cause for resentment and frustration. Television shows like WWF and violent scenes in movies etc lead the innocent children to imitate them. The negative characters in movies become their role models whom they want to ape in order to appear ‘cool’. Parents, teachers and social reformers should inculcate the right values in children through persuasion and instruction. Being the torch-beaness of the future, children need to be guided well and shown the correct path in life. Let us hope for a better future with the children of today becoming sensible and sensitive citizens of tomorrow.

 

Thank you.

 

2.     Write a speech in about 150–200 words on ‘Environmental Pollution’, which you have to deliver during the morning assembly in your school.

 

Respected principal and teachers and my dear friends,

Today I am going to speak on the topic ‘Environmental Pollution’, which is a serious problem that the whole world is facing today. The tremendous increase in population is the root cause of all kinds of pollution. More people on this earth means more waste material being created.

 

 Another factor is the advancement in science and technology. It has made our lives very comfortable but has also given rise to a variety of problems that are harming the environment. Pollution comes in various forms. Air pollution is caused by the smoke from factories, the exhaust fumes from vehicles and the burning of garbage containing

chemical materials. Water pollution is caused when toxic waste materials are disposed off into seas and rivers. Soil pollution is again the result of incorrect methods of waste disposal. Radioactive waves from electronic objects and non biodegradable material like plastics also contaminate the air and the soil. With modernisation, we have reached a stage where the enormous noise caused by industrial and transport activities has become a health hazard.

Even though it may not be possible for mankind to eliminate environmental pollution totally, the hazards can be minimised by adopting alternate methods and following certain rules. We must remember that by protecting the environment, we are protecting ourselves.

 

Thank you.

 

WORKSHEETS

1.     You have to deliver a speech in the morning assembly on the relevance of Mahatma Gandhi in the 21st century, in India. We gave him the title of ‘the Father of the Nation’, yet we appear to remember Gandhiji’s life-work and his sacrifice for his motherland only on two days of the year—30 January and 2 October. Politicians give speeches at public gatherings, the film ‘Gandhi’ is telecast on a couple of TV channels, but in our daily lives we think it unnecessary to follow his example. Write the speech in about 150–200 words, describing Gandhiji’s contribution to our country.

 

3.    Wheelchair Warriors, Sanjana, Vipul and Atul, have been suffering from a debilitating disease—muscular dystrophy—for almost three decades. The symptoms started appearing when they were in their early teens. But disability has not dampened their spirit. It has only made them more determined. You are deeply moved by the above report. You realise that physically challenged people can also play a constructive role in society. We should neither underestimate nor ignore them; and we should definitely not pity them. We must give them the opportunity to prove themselves. Give a speech during the morning assembly urging your schoolmates to understand people like Sanjana, Vipul and Atul.

 

4.     The student council of your school has to select its president. Many students have forwarded their names for the voting process. You, as a nominee, have to motivate the students to vote for you. Write a speech stating the reasons why you should be selected, your positive points, etc.

 

5.    The Government of Tanzania has declared 14 October 2014 as ‘Nyerere Day’ and

has distributed posters in schools around Dodoma stating;

           Grow More Trees! For

• More oxygen in the environment,  Comforts they give to mankind

• Trees are man’s best friends against Weak roots, Cutting down of trees

• Soil erosion

Using ideas from the above poster write a speech on ‘Need for Preservation of

Plants and Trees’.

 

 

6.    On the ocassion of the World Health Day, Kamayani has been asked to give a speech on ‘Need for Health Care Centres’. Taking ideas from the notes below, write the speech in about 150 words, to be delivered in the morning assembly. Government launched health care schemes—pulse polio campaign—re-emergence of infections like dengue, cholera, etc—HIV infection multiplied—urgent need of health centres—can prevent diseases—early diagnosis—effective cure—will ensure a disease-free nation.

 

7.     Stop! Stop! Stop! Female foeticide disallowed Girls – gift to humanity

Girls deserve equal opportunities Opposing nature Foeticide-creating imbalance is girl-boy ratio .

 Using your ideas after observing the poster above, write a speech for the morning

assembly on ‘Female foeticide a bane’. Do not exceed 150 words.

 

      8. You have to give a speech on the topic, ‘Introduction of the new grading system in 

          form IV National Examinations results. You have read a few newspapers and made  

          the notes below, Write your speech using these notes in not more than 150 words.

 

• Will decrease pressure on the students

• Cumulative assessment

• No rat race for the students

• Fewer cases of stress-related suicides

 

 

 

4.2.6  Writing Messages on Greeting Cards

 

“What is so often missing from our lives today is the richness of shared humanity, those moments when we feel really connected to other human beings. The act of writing personal notes not only feeds our own soul, but also lets us share ourselves with others offering hopes, affirming life, connecting.” By  Sandra E. Lamb

 

Examples of the typical occasions and events for which you may want to send a greeting card with your written message are: birth days, weddings, birth and adoptions, welcome, new years, employee leaving, retirement, promotion, holidays, sympathy, get well (sickness, injured) etc.

 

 

Principles and Guidelines when thinking about the content to present

 

·         Write as soon as you hear and confirm the news.

·         Always add your own message to that of a greeting card, even when the printed verse on the card seems perfect. One’s own words make the message really personal, add the sender’s voice, and help to make the connection the sender wants when sending a message for a joyful occasion, or a sad one.

·         First and foremost, think about offering encouragement.

·         Rely on the prevailing relationship with the recipient to dictate your message.

·         If possible, learn something about how the recipient views his or her situation before writing. Focus on the recipient and don’t misdirect your message towards your own feelings.

·         Express simply that you were sorry of hear about the accident/ illness if that is the case.

·         Make a statement about your concern.

·         Try to relieve any possible anxiety about things other than the recipient’s recovery.

·         Keep the message sunny and upbeat.

·         Be short and concise.

·         Consider the religious preferences, ethnic mores, family wishes, and organizational customs of the recipient when writing your message, and don’t include any conflicting ideologies you may embrace.

·         Make a specific offer of help, indicating when and how you will take the next step to carry out your offer.

·         Combine your message with a small gift of a book or an activity the recipient can enjoy while recuperating.

·         For the recovering child, build anticipation of an upcoming event at a time when he or she will be fully recovered, and include some kind of related activity for now.

·         If you send flowers or another gift, include a personal note.

·         Close on a warm and positive note.

 

Avoiding wrong messages:

·         Don’t moralise or include empty statements which meant to be sympathetic such as, “it could have been much worse or at least you didn’t die…”

·         Be sure to omit any hint or pity.

·         Do not offer unsolicited advice, think only of offering comfort.

·         Avoid insincere or empty offers of help.

·         Avoid dramatic or tragic words or phrases in referring to either the patient or your own feelings. Words like tragic accident, the worst case are not comforting.

·         Do not dwell in comparative stories, like peter’s brother had the same operation…”

 

The addition of Sender’s own message becomes easier if he/she:

·         Focuses on the sender’s and recipient’s relationship.

·         Focuses on the occasion about which one is writing, and its effects on the recipient or how she or he feels about it. These two steps create a circle of light in which one will be able to effectively write one’s message.

·         Puts herself/ himself how one feels about the recipient, the event, and the person’s reaction to it into this circle. Reflect all these lights when writing your message.

 

Consider special situations: e.g. The injury or illness will have severe financial repercussions for the recipient. Inquire to learn how best to offer help, but don’t let your offer take on the character of charity.

 

 

 

4.2.7       Curriculum Vitae Writing

The term resume is used by Americans while CV by the British but both convey the same information. 

•       Some scholars claim that a resume is shorter (max 2 pages) than a CV.

•       A good CV can kick start your carrier as it advertises you.

What is a CV? A CV  is a document which gives a brief account of one’s personal data, educational qualifications, work experience and other additional information deemed important for the job one is seeking.

 

A CV FORMAT/INGREDIENTS

•       PERSONAL DATA

   Name, sex, date of birth, nationality, age, marital status, contact address, phone no.

•       EDUCATION BACKGROUND

  Year                 Institution                 Qualification

2011-2013           Udsm                          M.A (PSPA)

2006- 2010          Udom                           BA (ACC)

·         WORK EXPERIENCE

2010 to date   -  marketing manager smith comp.

2007- 2010      -  accountant Mwene Sec. school.

……………………………………………………………………….

·         OTHER WORKING SKILLS

Computer , language etc

·         WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCES ATTENDED

•       HOBIES AND INTERESTS

•       REFERENCES / REFEREES

Here is a section where you will list people (usually three) who know you professionally. These could be:

  - Your superior in your organization, your instructors etc.

- You should give their full names and contacts

 

•       DECLARATION, SIGNATURE AND DATE

  - Declaration is the statement given to certify that the information you have given is true.

 

 - Signature abides you to the CV i.e. showing that the document is yours.

 

 - The date shows how recent your CV is.

 

.2.8      Essay Writing

What is it?

Essay writing is one of writing we normally do in academic life. Essay writing is important in academic life because it is one way of communicating ideas in various subjects of specializations.Thus an essay is a piece of writing on a particular subject or topic. It can be fictional or non fictional.

Characteristics of a good essay

Unity: Sentences should focus on one theme or topic with a definite purpose (homogenous entity rather than a separate entity”

Order: Logical organization of ideas or arguments (systematicity)

Brevity: Essay should not be too long.  At least 300 words.

Style: Formal style: No slang, colloquial terms or contractions.  Language should be simple, direct and natural.

Coherence: All sentences in should be related to one another logically. Coherence helps the reader to follow the flow of writer’s ideas. Coherence in essays is attained by using transitional markers (transitional words) which include:  such as, and, also, furthermore, likewise, for instance, on the other hand, aforementioned, he, she, in contrast, conversely, similarly, again, additionally, consequently, as follows, etc.

Cohesion: This is a grammatical and /or lexical relationship between different elements of a text. Relationship between sentences is achieved by using cohesion or transition markers such as: moreover, besides, in addition, this, the former, finally, etc.

Completeness: This means that the subject of the essay should be adequately developed by providing details, explanations, definitions, evidence, etc. This will make the reader get satisfied and not left with vague expressions or unanswered questions.

Personal touch: An essay should reveal personal feelings or opinions of the writer. One has to express his own views in an essay rather than just quoting other people’s ideas. People have to know your stand.

Use of citations and references: Proper citations and referencing

 

Approaches towards Writing Good Essays

1. Build a Rhetorical Power

Rhetorical power is a power to persuade and to communicate. It is the power to express what you feel, what you believe, what you know and what you have discovered about yourself and about the world around you.

A rhetorical power is built from reading. Reading generates writing. From reading you can be able to do the following:

-          learn on a particular topic you want to write on

-          you can learn the feelings of those you want to persuade or inform

-          And you can learn good writing styles

2. Decide on the Purpose of your Essay

To write anything including essays one must decide on the purpose of writing. This process entails, being clear on reasons of writing, one asks these questions himself/herself:

• Do you want to report on something?
• Do you want to describe something?
• Do you want to discuss about something?
• Do you want to compare and contrast on certain issues?
• Do you want to outline on something?
• Are you intending to comment on something, etc

3. Decide on What Type of Essay you Want to Write

Is it narrative; expository; descriptive; argumentative; imaginative etc

Narrative essay: Consists of  stories or narrations of events. Some of the events may be historical, personal or fictional.

Expository essay: It is also called explanatory essay. It explains some subject, terms or ideas; compares things; or explains how to do something (gives instructions). Examples: Cause and effect essays, compare and contrast essays, those which define certain concepts and those which expose problems and provide solutions. Expository essays are the essays that most of college and university students write during their tests and examinations.

Descriptive essay: Describes about places, things like animals or buildings, actions, phenomena or events that happened in the past, manufactured articles such as cars etc.

Argumentative or persuasive essay: Essay with the aim of convincing or persuading, motivating, or persuading readers to accept changes or take actions and sometimes it can be written for the purpose of discouraging some bad behaviour among intended readers.

• It involves inductive or deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning proceeds from specific aspects or details to the general aspects or idea. Deductive reasoning proceeds from logically general facts to specific details or aspects.

Imaginative essay: Essay which expresses ones feelings about certain situation or experience. A writer places himself or herself in someone’s position and starts writing about what he feels about that position or certain experience.

4. Think of your Audience

• Who are you writing to (audience), are they lay people, technical, or non technical people? Or is it simply your lecturer(s)
• Consideration of your audience is necessary because it will affect the choice of vocabulary, structure and approach (how you have to say it), what you have to write (content) and style of writing and presentation. This consideration again is necessary because by doing so you will be putting the reader in first priority for the essay is aimed at him/her.

5. The Essay Question

• Any writing and in particular essay writing starts with an essay question. For timed essays there is usually a question set for you by your examiners/lecturers. For free written essay, long report or term paper it should start by a question of your own making. That is, make your own essay question.

6. Understand the Requirements of the Essay Question

• After you have been presented with an essay question or after you have made your own question, then the next step is to understand the requirements of the essay question.

 

• Understanding the demands of the question correctly is an important skill towards the best approach to follow and producing an effective answer to the question.
• There have been many cases where students produce stereo type answers particularly copying from lecture notes as if all questions had the same demands.
• It should be understood that instructions to essay questions enormously. Each essay question has its own specific requirements. With the timed essays tutors and examiners normally spell out these requirements in the essay questions themselves.

Thus try to develop the ability to recognise exactly what is required by the essay question.

• There are three important things that you need to do in order to be able to understand the requirements of the essay question and interpret it effectively:

I. Subject or Theme

• Identify the subject or theme of the question. Actually this is the key word of the essay. The key word is a broad area; it may be land surveying, economics, urban poverty, education, trading systems, population etc.
• This will help you remember things you know about the topic or subject.

 

II. Key Instructional Words

• Identify the key instructional words of the question. These show exactly what to do in the essay.
• These words are the words that instruct/direct the candidate what the question demands.
• It is generalized that, in most cases the instructional words demand either FACTS or OPINIONS, o r BOTH. Let us look at some of these words and what they demand:

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